INTRODUCTION:

There are many countries including India who stretched down the female composition at 982 females for 1000 males at world level (WPP Estimates 2017 revision). India and China the giant populous countries also have low sex ratio which significantly causes to lower female to male composition in the world as a whole. India witnessed a deficit in female sex ratio since more than hundred years back to till date.

Being a male dominated society in India there is a preference for son and daughters are avoided through the inhuman act of female foeticide. The miss use of Ultrasonography (USG) for detecting foetal sex is causing abortion of female foetuses. Because of this, it is observed that most of the time there is a negative change in sex ratio over previous census. But in last two censuses there is an improvement in sex ratio from 927 in 1991 to 933 and 943 in 2001 and 2011 census (Table no.2). But overall child sex ratio has been found deteriorated from 927 in 2001 to 918 in 2011.

Since last many years country has implemented corrective measures to bring equality in sex ratio but the fact of deteriorated child sex ratio in 2011 has raised several question on the policy implementation on the national level as well as on the state level. There are few studies focusing sex ratio through various angles. Vibhuti Patel (2002) in her paper highlighted the deteriorated sex ratio in 2001 census.Sharada Srinivasan (2015) in his paper on KonguVellalaGounder community, of Namakkal District in Tamil Nadu explored the various aspects of daughter deficits. Pritam Singh, Nadia Singh (2017) focused on the gender disparity in Punjab. S IrudayaRajan, Sharada Srinivasan, Arjun S Bedi (2015) presented temporal and spatial patterns emerging from data on 0–1 sex ratio from Censuses 2001 and 2011.So through this paper an attempt has been made to investigate the change in sex ratio as well as the impact of individual state on overall sex ratio of all ages and the child sex ratio. It also highlights the sex ratio of social and religious groups.

The objectives of this paper are as under.

OBJECTIVES:

1) To highlight on the temporal changes in sex ratio in India.

2) To analyse the state specific changes sex ratio.

3) To analyse the rural urban differences and change in sex ratio.

4) To investigate the sex ratio among the different social groups.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

Source of data:

Method of this paper is a mix of two i.e. exploration and analysis. The source of data for this study is secondary data only, which is taken from the Primary Census Abstract (PCA) of census 2001 and 2011.

Analysis and interpretation:

Considering the objectives of this research comparative analysis of overall sex ratio and child sex ratio is presented by using PCA data. Use of descriptive statistics like ratio made to arrive at the broader picture of the inequality in sex ratio. The net impact of individual state on the overall sex ratio of all ages and the child sex ratio of country is calculated by taking the difference between actual sex ratio of the country and the sex ratio after removing the male and female population of concerned state (without concerned state) from country’s male and female population. The use of research papers published in reputed journals has been made to provide supportive interpretation to the data analysed.

Impact of Individual State = {100 – (CA–WSi)}

CA = Actual Sex Ratio of Country

WSi = Sex Ratio of Country without Considering the Respective State

WSi = {(M0 - MSi)/(M0 – MSi)}*100

OBSERVATIONS AND INTERPRETATION:

1) Decadal Change in Sex Ratio:

In the following table it is observed that in India there is a continuous deficit of females as compared to males. It is also noticed that the trend of male female differences expressed in sex ratio (females per 1000 male) has declined from 972 females in the year 1901 to 927 females in the year 1991. This shows the increase in female deficit by 45 points during this span of hundred years. The highest decline in sex ratio is reported in the year 1971. Due to this alarming situation of gender gap in India Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PNDT), (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act of 1994 was enacted and brought into operation from 1^st January, 1996, to bring equality in male female composition trough making check on female foeticide (Rakhi Ghoshal 2012). Suddenly after this in next census it is observed that sex ratio has improved by 6 points and reached to 933 females per 1000 males in 2001 census. Apart from the PNDT act of 1994 the other corrective measures also implemented by the central as well as state governments to promote the birth of girl child through offering various monetary rewards and concessions. A cumulative effect of this is depicted in the next census with an increase in the sex ratio by 10 points, i.e. 943 females / 1000 male in 2011.

Table no.1: Census wise sex ratio and change in India (1901 to 2011)

Census	Sex Ratio	Change over previous Census
Year 1901	972
Year 1911	964	-8
Year1921	955	-9
Year 1931	950	-5
Year 1941	945	-5
Year 1951	946	1
Year 1961	941	-5
Year 1971	930	-11
Year 1981	934	4
Year 1991	927	-7
Year 2001	933	6
Year 2011	943	10

Source: Authors compilation

2) Rural Urban Pattern of Sex Ratio:

In the following figure rural- urban pattern of overall Sex Ratio(of all ages)and Child Sex Ratio (CSR) has been given. The CSR is calculated for 0 to 6 years. It is observed that, child sex ratio in India is 918 which is lower by 25 points than overall sex ratio (PCA 2011). Here it is incidental to mention that the child sex ratio in 2011 has fallen by 9 points from its ratio in 2001. Further it is observed that sex ratio of all ages in rural area is 949 where as it is 929 in urban area. The gap of 20 points shows rural-urban difference in sex composition. The sectoral (rural –urban) difference in sex ratio raises two question first is whether it is because of son preference is more in urban people ? Or it is because of the other factors like migration for various reasons? To investigate this, sex ratio of small age group i.e. 0 to 6 years (CSR) is computed from PCA data and observed because this age group is not entitled to migrate alone. And it is observed that, there is a rural-urban gap of 18 points in child sex ratio. This situation reveals that sex discrimination in India is more in urban sector than the rural one.

Source: Census 2011

Figure No. 1: Rural Urban Pattern of Sex Ratio in India.

3) Spatial pattern of Sex Ratio:

As indicated above, the Low CSR indicates that there is an existence of female foeticide in recent past. Since India is a union of States and each state is having unique socio economic status and policies of their respective governments, it is important to investigate the spatial pattern of sex ratio in India. This is important to highlight the appropriate target regions for policy initiatives. Here spatial pattern refers to the sex ratio in States. As per the PCA data of 2011 it is observed that highest number of overall sex ratio is found in Kerala (1084), followed by Puducherry (1037), only these two states in India, have reported sex ratio above the level of male female equality whereas all remaining states have shown deficit in sex ratio. It is important to note that out of seven union territories (UTs) of India, sex ratio is low in five UTs.

The status of child sex ratio shows that there are three north east states namely Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram and Meghalaya in the list of states having top child sex ratio i.e. 972, 970 and 970 respectively. This is followed by Chhattisgarh, the state in the central part of India with 969. It is interesting to note that Andaman &Nikobar Islands and Puducherry the two UTs of low sex ratio of all ages have reported their fifth and sixth place in the list of top child sex ratio. The important observation is about the CSR of Kerala (the leading state in overall sex ratio) is on the seventh position with 964 CSR. At the lower side of child sex ratio there are states like Haryana, Punjab, J&K, Delhi Chandigarh etc. The child sex ratio of Haryana is unbelievably low i.e. 834, followed by Punjab which is quite close to Haryana with 846, J&K with 862, Delhi with 871 and Chandigarh with 880. This shows the disgusting picture of the status of women in these states.

While discussing on lowest and highest sex ratio (overall and child sex ratio), it is observed that there are states and UTs with small share in total population. If we cautiously extend our discussion towards high populous states we can easily understand the states which are stretching down the overall sex ratio of all ages and child sex ratio of country. So, in the following table no.2, the status of sex ratio has separately given for the top ten populous states of the country. It is observed that three populous states namely Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Bihar comprise 34.38 percent of India’s total population. But their sex ratio is far below than national level. Out of top ten the four states namely West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have sex ratio of all ages greater than national level. Looking at the child sex ratio it is observed that, there are only two states namely west Bengal and Karnataka who reported child sex ratio greater that national level and remaining states are far below the national average.

The above figure no. 4 A) state wise impact of individual states on the Sex Ratio of All Ages has been shown. It is observed that Kerala the state of highest sex ratio of all ages (1084) has contributed to improve the sex ratio of country by 4 points for per thousand male population. This is followed by the Andhra Pradesh with 3.9 and Tamil Nadu by 3.6. At the opposite side it is observed that Uttar Pradesh the highest populous state has created negative impact on overall sex ratio by 5.8 points. There are other states like Bihar, Haryana, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and other three who are negatively contributed. In case of child sex ratio, it is observed that West Bengal has contributed to improve it by 2 points this is followed by Bihar with 1.7 points. It is important to mention that Bihar who negatively contributed in overall sex ratio; is reported positive sign to improve the child sex ratio. There are other states like Orissa, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh who reported optimistic picture in both the sex ratio; this situation highlights the optimistic policy initiatives in bringing equality in gender (numbers) in these states. But the states like Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Delhi and Jammu-Kashmir have shown negativity in both of the sex ratios.

5) Sex Ratio in Religious Groups:

Since the religious beliefs are different in each religion its impact is obvious on the size and gender composition in that religion. So, in the following figure no. 5, the sex ratio in various religious groups is given and it is observed that in India lowest sex ratio is found in Shikh religion i.e. 903. This is followed by the Hindu religion with 939. Here it is important to mention that Hindu accounts major share of India’s population. And the deficit in females to male ratio in this religion is the major issue of concern in India. The highest sex ratio is observed in Christian religion (i.e. 1023) followed by Muslims, Buddhists, and Jain religion. But the quantum of these religions in total population of the country is very lower in comparison to Hindus. So the policy initiatives are necessary to make awareness about gender differences in each religion and its resultant social problems. The use of print and electronic media will be helpful to make awareness in the masses.

6) Sex Ratio in SC’s and ST’s:

The differences in sex ratio caused by human intervention, always indicates the cultural backwardness of the people. The situation of sex ratio in socially backward communities (SCs & STs) in India shows that in most of the states sex ratio of STs is more than the national average. In states like Goa, Kerala, Arunachal, Odisha, Chattisgarh, Meghalaya, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Mizoram, Jharkhand and Lakshadweep sex ratio is more than equality. In case of SCs its is observed that there are only five states namely Puducherry, Goa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu where sex ratio is greater than equality. There are states where it is lower than national average and there are states where it is more than national average (Annexure-I). This indicates that there are other factors than social backwardness that causes to stretch down the sex ratio in India. Most of them are wrong cultural beliefs and practices.

CONCLUSION:

The above analysis shows that there is a continuous difference in female to male ratio in India. Though there is an improvement in overall sex ratio in past decades, the status of child sex ratio is deteriorated in the last decade. This situation raised a question on the recent policy implementation and new policy initiatives. There are state specific differences in sex ratio. But the positive and negative impact on sex ratio is created by the most populous states. So policy initiatives should be concentrated on the larger states creating negative impact on sex ratio. It is observed that, there are differences in sex ratio in various social and religious groups. In this context awareness against wrong social and religious beliefs is required.

REFERENCES:

1. Rakhi Ghoshal (2012), Child Sex Ratio and the Politics of ‘Enemisation, Economic & Political Weekly, December 8, vol - XLVII, no. 49, p 20-22.

2. Vibhuti Patel (2002) Adverse Juvenile Sex Ratio in Kerala, Economic and Political Weekly, June 1, P- 2124-2125.

3. Sharada Srinivasan (2015) Between Daughter Deficit and Development Deficit, Economic and Political Weekly, September 19, Vol L. No. 38, p 61-70.

4. Pritam Singh & Nadia Singh (2017), Confronting Gender Discrimination in Punjab, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol LII No. 8, p 24-26.

5. Rajan, Srinivasan and Bedi (2017), Updates on Trends in Sex Ratio at Birth in India, Economic and Political Weekly, March 18, Vol. LII No. 11, p 14-16.

6. Rajan, Srinivasan and Bedi (2015), Coming Back to Normal? Census 2011 and Sex Ratios in India, Economic and Political Weekly, December 26, Vol. I, No. 52, p 33-36.

7. Ashish Bose (2002), Curbing Female Foeticide; Doctors, Governments and Civil Society Ensure Failure, Economic and Political Weekly, February 23, P 696-697.

8. Srinivasn&Bedi (2010), Daughter Elimination: Cradle Baby Scheme in Tamil Nadu, Economic and Political Weekly, June 5, Vol XLV, No. 23, p 17F20.

9. Ashish Bose (2001), Fighting Female Foeticide; Growing Greed and Shrinking Child Sex Ratio, Economic and Political Weekly, September 8, p 3427-3429.

10. Sharada Srinivasan (2001), Gender Bias in Child Mortality, Economic and Political Weekly, p 4767 -4768.

11. Leela Visaria (2008), Improving the Child Sex Ratio: Role of Policy and Advocacy, Economic and Political Weekly, March 22, p 34-37.

12. Ravinder Kaur (2013), Mapping the Adverse Consequences of Sex Selection and Gender Imbalance in India and China, Economic and Political Weekly, August 31, Vol. XLVIII, No. 35, p 37-44.

13. P. N. Mari Bhat (2002), On the Trail of ‘Missing’ Indian Females, Economic and Political Weekly, December 21, p 5105-5118.

14. Mattias Larsen & Ravinder Kaur (2013),Signs of Change?Sex Ratio Imbalance and Shifting Social Practices in Northern India, Economic and Political Weekly, August 31, Vol. XLVIII, N0. 35, p 45-52.

Annexure-I: Sex Ratio in SCs and STs

Sr. No.	Name	Sex Ratio SC	Sex Ratio ST	Sr. No.	Name	Sex Ratio SC	Sex Ratio ST
1	Punjab	910	NA	19	India	945	990
2	Chandigarh	872	NA	20	Karnataka	990	990
3	Haryana	887	NA	21	Assam	948	985
4	Delhi	889	NA	22	Manipur	992	984
5	Puducherry	1056	NA	23	Madhya Pradesh	920	984
6	Goa	1015	1046	24	Tripura	959	983
7	Kerala	1057	1035	25	Gujarat	931	981
8	Arunachal Pradesh	NA	1032	26	Tamil Nadu	1004	981
9	Odisha	987	1029	27	Daman & Diu	944	977
10	Chhattisgarh	994	1020	28	Maharashtra	962	977
11	Meghalaya	895	1013	29	Nagaland	NA	976
12	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	853	1010	30	Uttarakhand	954	963
13	Mizoram	509	1007	31	Sikkim	956	960
14	Jharkhand	950	1003	32	Bihar	925	958
15	Lakshadweep	NA	1003	33	Uttar Pradesh	908	952
16	Himachal Pradesh	973	999	34	Rajasthan	923	948
17	West Bengal	951	999	35	Andaman &Nikobar Islands	NA	937
18	Andhra Pradesh	1008	993	36	Jammu & Kashmir	902	924

Source: Census 2011

Annexure-I: Sex Ratio and Net Impact

Sr. No.	Name	Sex Ratio All Ages	Net Impact	Name	Child Sex Ratio	Net Impact
1	Kerala	1084	4	West Bengal	956	2
2	Andhra Pradesh	993	3.9	Bihar	935	1.7
3	Tamil Nadu	996	3.6	Karnataka	948	0.8
4	Karnataka	973	1.8	Assam	962	0.7
5	Odisha	979	1.5	Andhra Pradesh	939	0.7
6	Chhattisgarh	991	1.3	Tamil Nadu	943	0.7
7	West Bengal	950	0.8	Chhattisgarh	969	0.6
8	Assam	958	0.6	Jharkhand	948	0.5
9	Uttarakhand	963	0.4	Kerala	964	0.5
10	Himachal Pradesh	972	0.4	Odisha	941	0.2
11	Jharkhand	948	0.4	Meghalaya	970	-0.3
12	Meghalaya	989	0.4	Tripura	957	-0.4
13	Manipur	985	0.4	Arunachal Pradesh	972	-0.4
14	Puducherry	1037	0.3	Mizoram	970	-0.4
15	Tripura	960	0.3	Nagaland	943	-0.5
16	Goa	973	0.3	Puduchherry	967	-0.5
17	Mizoram	976	0.3	Manipur	930	-0.5
18	Lakshadweep	946	0.3	Goa	942	-0.5
19	Arunachal Pradesh	938	0.3	Sikkim	957	-0.5
20	Nagaland	931	0.2	Andaman & Nicobar Islands	968	-0.5
21	Andaman & Nicobar Islands	876	0.2	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	926	-0.5
22	Sikkim	890	0.2	Lakshadweep	911	-0.5
23	Dadra & Nagar Haveli	774	0.2	Daman & Diu	904	-0.5
24	Daman & Diu	618	0.2	Chandigarh	880	-0.5
25	Chandigarh	818	0.1	Madhya Pradesh	918	-0.5
26	Jammu & Kashmir	889	-0.3	Himachal Pradesh	909	-0.5
27	Madhya Pradesh	931	-0.5	Uttarakhand	890	-0.7
28	Rajasthan	928	-0.6	Delhi	871	-1.1
29	Delhi	868	-0.8	Jammu and Kashmir	862	-1.2
30	Punjab	895	-0.9	Punjab	846	-1.9
31	Gujarat	919	-1	Gujarat	890	-1.9
32	Maharashtra	929	-1.1	Haryana	834	-2.3
33	Haryana	879	-1.2	Rajasthan	888	-2.6
34	Bihar	918	-2.1	Maharashtra	894	-2.7
35	Uttar Pradesh	912	-5.8	Uttar Pradesh	902	-4.2

Source: Census 2011

Received on 18.08.2018 Modified on 02.09.2018

Int. J. Rev. and Res. Social Sci. 2018; 6(3):248-254.

DOI: 10.5958/2454-2687.2018.00023.0

Sr. No.	State & UT	% pop	Sex Ratio All	Child Sex Ratio
1	UTTAR PRADESH	16.5	912	902
2	MAHARASHTRA	9.28	929	894
3	BIHAR	8.6	918	935
4	WEST BENGAL	7.54	950	956
5	ANDHRA PRADESH	6.99	993	939
6	MADHYA PRADESH	6	931	918
7	TAMIL NADU	5.96	996	943
8	RAJASTHAN	5.66	928	888
9	KARNATAKA	5.05	973	948
10	GUJARAT	4.99	919	890